Complete Report

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Branch of Cultural Resources
Alaska/Pacific Northwest/Western Team
Denver Service Center
National Park Service
United States Department of the Interior
Denver, Colorado

Table of Contents

Preface

List of Illustrations

I. Formation of the Crater Lake Environment

A. Northern Plateau Area of Southern Oregon

B. Prehistoric Indian Occupation of the Crater Lake Vicinity

C. Historic Indian Occupation of the Crater Lake Vicinity

1. The Klamaths

2. The Modocs

II. White Men Slowly Penetrate the Southern Oregon Wilderness

A. Early Exploration by Fur Traders

B. New Land Routes Through Southern Oregon Studied

C. Opening of the Southern Emigrant Route

D. Gold Rush of 1849 Accelerates Oregon Settlement

E. Gold Mining Begins in Southern Oregon

III. Discovery of Crater Lake

A. John Wesley Hillman

B. Chauncey Nye

C. Captain Franklin B. Sprague

D. Later Visits to Crater Lake

E. James Sutton Party

IV. Indian Perceptions of Crater Lake

A. Early Observations by White Men

B. Role of Crater Lake in Shamanistic Quests

C. Indian Myths Explaining Geological Occurrences

D. Legends Surrounding Crater Lake

V. Geological and Biological Information on Crater Lake Area

A. Mount Mazama

B. Formation of Lake

C. Description of Lake

1. Statistics

2. Color

D. Volcanic Parks

1. Importance in National Park System

2. Importance of Crater Lake National Park

E. Points of Geological Interest in Crater Lake National Park

1. Rim Slopes

2. Wizard Island

3. The Watchman

4. Hillman Peak

5. Devils Backbone

6. Llao Rock

7. Red Cone, Timber Crater

8. Pumice Desert

9. Mazama Rock

10. Palisade Point

11. Wineglass

12. Redcloud Cliff

13. Castle Rock (Pumice Castle)

14. Mount Scott

15. Kerr Notch

16. The Pinnacles

17. Phantom Ship

18. Sun Notch

19. Godfrey Glen and Colonnades

20. Union Peak

21. Llao's Hallway

F. Other Natural Resources

1. Forests and Plant Life

2. Wildlife

G. Will Mount Mazama Erupt Again?

VI. Steps Leading Toward Establishment of Crater Lake National Park

A. Further Exploration of Crater Lake by Boat

B. Crater Lake Meets the Camera

C. Scientific Studies Commence

D. William Gladstone Steel

E. Commercial Exploitation Threatens National Forestlands

F. Emergence of a National Conservation Philosophy

G. Steel Mounts a Campaign to Save Crater Lake

H. The Dutton Survey

I . John Muir Assists the National Park Concept

J. Federal Forest Reservations

K. Cascade Range Forest Reserve

L. The Mazamas Expedition to Crater Lake

M. The National Forest Commission Visits Crater Lake

N. Crater Lake National Park

O. Provisions of the Crater Lake Act

P. William Steel and the Preservation of Crater Lake

Q. Park Boundaries

VII. Concessionaire Development of Visitor Services

A. The Crater Lake Company Begins Construction of Crater Lake Lodge

B. The Crater Lake National Park Company Takes Over Park Concessions

C. Cafeteria and Cabins Added to Rim Village

D. The National Park Service Purchases the Lodge and Ponders Its Future

E. Importance of Crater Lake Lodge

VIII. Roads of Crater Lake National Park

A. Approaches to the Park

B. Entrance Road and Bridges

1. Early Conditions Call for Improvements

2. A New Road to the Rim

3. First Cars Reach the Lake

4. Accounts by Early Visitors

5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Plans the Park Road System

6. Several New Roads Contemplated

7. Plans Made for First Rim Road

8. Annie Spring and Goodbye Creek Bridges

9. Plans Made for Second Rim Road

10. Motorways

11. Restraints Imposed by Snow and a World War

12. New Bridges Needed

13. Evaluations and Recommendations

IX. Trails and Campgrounds of Crater Lake National Park

A. Rim Trails

B. Wizard Island Trails

C. Castle Crest and Lake Circle Trails

D. Other Trails

E. Summary of Park Trail System

1. On the Rim

a) Watchman Trail

b) Devils Backbone

c) Llao Rock

d) Cleetwood Cove Trail

e) Mount Scott

f) Crater Peak

g) Castle Crest Wildflower Gardens

h) Canyon Rim Loop Trail

i) Hillman Peak Trail

j) Sun Notch

2. Northwest Section of Park

a) Red Cone

b) Boundary Springs

3. Northeast Section of Park

a) Timber Crater

b) Wineglass Motorway

4. Southeast Section of Park

a) Crater Peak

5. Southwest Section of Park

a) Union Peak

b) Snow Crater

c) Llao's Hallway

F. Campgrounds

1. Rim Campground

2. Annie Spring Campground

3. Lost Creek Campground

4. White Horse Campground

5. Cold Spring Campground

G. Evaluations and Recommendations

X. Construction of Government Buildings and Landscaping in Crater Lake National Park

A. Functionalism Dictates Building Styles at Annie (Anna) Spring Camp

B. The Rustic Architecture Program of the National Park Service

C. Kiser Studio (Bldg. #066)

D. Headquarters Moved to Government Camp

E. Community House Erected and Government Headquarters Enlarged (Bldg. #116)

F. Building Inventory of 1926

G. Western Field Office of National Park Service Implements Rustic Architecture Program

H. Construction Plans for 1928

1. Superintendent's Residence

2. Employee's Cabin

3. Medford Warehouse

4. Barn at Government Camp

5. Comfort Station at Lake

6. Dam, Pumphouse, and Pumping Equipment for Rim

7. Toilets and Bath at Government Camp

8. Septic Tank at Government Camp

I. Building Inventory of 1929

J. Physical Changes from 1930 to 1931

1. Employee's Cottage at Government Camp

2. Addition to Utility Shed at Government Camp (Bldg. #005)

3. Comfort Station in Rim Campground

4. Headquarters Building

5. Watchman Lookout Station (Bldg. #168)

6. Storeroom and Garage at Government Camp

K. Important Additions to Headquarters Complex in 1932

1. Administration Building

2. Superintendent's Residence

3. Naturalist's Residence

4. Ranger Dormitory (Club House)

5. Final Field Activity in 1932

a. Employee's Quarters (Naturalist's Residence)

b. Oil House at Government Camp

c. Superintendent's Residence

d. Machine Shop and Utility Shed at Government Camp

e. Ranger Dormitory (Club House)

L. Civilian Conservation Corps Work Performed in Park

M. Landscaping

1. Rim Area

2. Ranger Dormitory, Superintendent's Residence, Naturalist's Residence, and three Employee Residences

N. Emergency Conservation Work Camps

1. Camp No. 1

2. Camp No. 2 (Wineglass Camp)

3. Work Accomplished

O. Construction Activity Tapers Off

XI. Summary of Important Structures

A. List of Classified Structures

B. National Register of Historic Places

C. Structures Eligible for the National Register

1. Headquarters Area

2. Watchman Fire Lookout (Bldg. #168)

3. Sinnott Memorial Building (Bldg. #067)

D. Structures Not Eligible for the National Register

1. Exhibit Building (Bldg. #066)

2. Community Building

3. Cafeteria Cabins

4. Sleepy Hollow Residential Area

5. Steel Circle Residential Area

6. Miscellaneous Structures

XII. General Recommendations for Interpretation

APPENDIXES

A. "Discovery of Crater Lake," by J.W. Hillman

B. "Blue Lake," [by J.W. Sessions]

C. "Lake Majesty," by F.B. Sprague

D. "How Crater Lake was Discovered," by O.A. Stearns

E. "The Legends of Crater Lake," by W. Craig Thomas

F. Correspondence Relative to Withdrawal from Settlement of Land Surrounding Crater Lake

G. "Crater Lake," by Joaquin Miller

H. Names and Places of Crater Lake

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HISTORICAL BASE MAP

Preface

This Historic Resource Study has been prepared in accordance with the approved Task Directive for Crater Lake Package No. 217. It is oriented toward the identification and evaluation of the historical resources within the park in order to accomplish compliance with Executive Order 11593 and to provide basic reference material for planners, managers, and interpreters to facilitate the proper care and management of cultural properties.

The writer was delighted to find that, in addition to its impressive geological attributes, Crater Lake National Park possesses an absorbing and complex history. Especially interesting are the Indian legends explaining the lake's formation, the area's status as a sacred Indian quest site, its many rediscoveries by white men, and the series of events that culminated in the lake's inclusion within the National Park System at a time when such conservation-oriented efforts were regarded with suspicion and surrounded with controversy. It is hoped that this report will serve as a comprehensive study of the area's early history, that it will provide further understanding of the events leading to the establishment of Crater Lake National Park, and that it will enable intelligent management of the park's remaining cultural resources and ensure their adequate inclusion in the park's interpretive programs.

Many institutions provided valuable data during the course of this study. The writer would like to thank the staffs of the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; the Oregon Historical Society, Portland; the Oregon State Library, Salem; the Southern Oregon Historical Society, Jacksonville; the Federal Archives and Records Center, San Bruno, California; and Renee Jaussaud of the Legislative and Natural Resources Branch of the National Archives, Washington, D.C. Individuals at Crater Lake National Park, especially Hank Tanski of the Interpretive staff, were extremely helpful in locating and loaning materials from the park library. And as usual, of utmost importance was the help of Ruth Larison, Librarian of the Rocky Mountain Regional Office, National Park Service, who steadily, and always cheerfully, requested reams of material for the author's use. Thanks also to Vernon C. Tancil, retired National Park Service Regional Historian, Pacific Northwest Regional Office, Seattle, Washington, for his help in deciding the scope of the project and for his constructive criticism of the final document. Upon Mr. Tancil's retirement, this report was also reviewed by Stephanie Toothman, historian of the regional office, whose comments were also much appreciated.

L.W.G.

1982

List of Illustrations

1. How Crater Lake was formed
2. Wizard Island, 1937
3. The Pinnacles
4. Phantom Ship
5. First photograph of Crater Lake
6. Cleetwood on Crater Lake
7. Steel party on rim of Crater Lake, 1903
8. Launching Start, Steel excursion of 1903
9. Excursion at Crater Lake, 1905
10. "Map Showing the Proposed Enlargement of the Crater Lake National Park," 1918
11. Cold-water cabins behind cafeteria
12. Four-plexes behind cafeteria
13. "Map showing routes to Crater Lake National Park," 1903
14. Crater Lake highway, ca. 1900
15. Close-up view of road to Crater Lake (showing log "bridge" over Annie Creek)
16. Annie Creek bridge, Fort Klamath road, 1903
17. Crater Lake highway lunchroom
18. Map showing new road to rim, 1906
19. "Crater Lake Road Survey," 1910-11
20. Annie Spring bridge, 1929
21. Rim drive above Kerr Notch
22. Trail around Crater Lake, 1897
23. "Anna Spring Camp," post-1909
24. Rim campground
25. Trail to Crater Lake from rim
26. Interior of tent camp, Crater Lake
27. Administration building and superintendent's residence, Anna Spring Camp, ca. 1917?
28. Ranger cabin, Medford entrance
29. Kiser Studio, Rim Village, n.d.
30. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers camp, rim road, ca. 1917
31. Government Camp, pre-1930s
32. Community house and cafeteria, Rim Village, n.d.
33. Rim Center (former community house), 1981
34. Cafeteria, Rim Village, 1981
35. Headquarters at Government Camp, post-1925
36. Annie Spring checking station area, n.d.
37. Will Steel's residence at Government Camp while he served as commissioner
38. Sinnott Memorial Building, 1981
39. Veranda of Sinnott Memorial Building, 1938
40. Mess hall and dormitory building at Government Camp, n.d.
41. Mess hall and dormitory building, 1981
42. Building #025, stone housing area, 1981
43. Building #028, stone housing area, 1981
44. Old fire lookout, The Watchman, n.d.
45. Mount Scott fire lookout, July 1958
46. New Watchman fire lookout, n.d.
47. Ranger dormitory and grading activities for new headquarters building, Munson Valley
48. CCC Camp, Annie Spring, 1934
49. Frame residence, Lost Creek, 1956
50. Wineglass patrol cabin, n.d.
51. Wineglass patrol cabin, 1968
52. Maklak patrol cabin, n.d.
53. National Creek patrol cabin 1933
54. Storage equipment sheds at headquarters area
55. Double garage at headquarters area
56. Warehouse at headquarters area
57a. 57b. Cabins in Sleepy Hollow residential area
58. Administration building, 1981
59. Ranger dormitory, 1981
60. Superintendent's residence, 1981
61. Naturalist's residence, 1981
62. Machine shop, ca. 1930s ?46
63. Machine shop, 1981
64. Building #031 in stone housing area, 1981
65. Building #032 in stone housing area, 1981
66. Sign shop, 1981
67. Transformer house, 1981
68. Structures in Sleepy Hollow residential area, 1981
69. Apartments and school in Steel Circle residential area
70. Building #034 in Munson Valley
71. Employee dorm south of lodge
72. Cafeteria in Rim Village

I. Formation of the Crater Lake Environment

A. Northern Plateau Area of Southern Oregon

The geology, altitude, and climate of the northern plateau area of southern Oregon forced specialized ecological adjustments on the part of the early aboriginal inhabitants. The physical feature most responsible for the specialization necessary for survival was the Cascade Mountain Range, a rugged continuance of the Sierra Nevadas north through California, Oregon, Washington, and sections of British Columbia. This chain originated perhaps forty million years ago from a weak north-south-trending seam in the earth's crust. Through this fissure molten magma was ejected from the interior up through the inland sea that covered the region. After successive eons, this volcanic uplifting created a ponderous mountain chain rearing to an impressive height. During the next few million years, the creation of this mountain mass was followed by the formation of a series of huge, broad, shield volcanoes. These were ultimately replaced by the now familiar steep-sided volcanic cones stretching southward from Mount Garibaldi near Vancouver, British Columbia, and including Mounts Baker, Rainier, Adams, and St. Helens in Washington; Mounts Hood, Jefferson, Three Sisters, Mazama, and McLoughlin in Oregon; and California's Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak.

The most significant effect of the Cascade Range and of its numerous high peaks was the creation of two distinct climatic zones in the present state of Oregon in which vegetation and animal life began taking on the singular characteristics unique to each one's particular environment. As the Cascades deflected the moisture-laden winds rushing inland, lowering their temperatures and causing them to deposit their condensation on the lands adjacent to the ocean, it resulted in a lack of moisture in that sunny dry area immediately east of the mountains that is commonly referred to as a "rain shadow." Of more consequence environmentally was the lack of rain in the very dry area of vast plains and desert flora on Oregon's eastern plateau.

B. Prehistoric Indian Occupation of the Crater Lake Vicinity

Man's initial entry into the now arid basins stretching from south-central Oregon to southeast California began about 10,000 years ago, after the end of the volcanic activity characterizing the last Ice Age (Pleistocene glacial epoch), when, although deep snowfields and glaciers blanketed the lands northward toward Canada, here in the Plateau area a more benign climate, inland lakes, and dense forests offered a relatively comfortable existence for groups of nomadic hunters. Natural shelters at the bases of high cliffs and small caves found today high above present water levels have yielded evidence of human occupation in the form of stone and bone tools and weapons and grinding stones dating from at least 13,000 years ago. [1] The first inhabitants of the Klamath-Tule Lake basins, arriving between 7,500 and 10,000 years ago, showed a more specialized lifestyle and culture; the greatest mass of evidence of human presence in this area dates from this time period. Abundant springs provided water, and cultural remains indicate a simple hunting and seed- and root-gathering existence.

The eruption of Mount Mazama 6,600 years ago probably only hastened an abandonment of the cliffs that had already begun with the advent of warmer temperatures in 11,000 B.C. The eruption was undoubtedly witnessed by humans, a never-to-be-forgotten occurrence immortalized by detailed and descriptive legends. That man was nearby at the time is attested to by archeological investigations at Fort Rock Cave about fifty-five miles northeast of Mount Mazama in 1938 that uncovered one hundred woven-sagebrush sandals covered, baked, and charred by the mud flow and ashes from Mazama's eruption. [2] For miles around plants would have been buried and burned and lakes and marshes clogged, suffocating the fish population and depriving upland game birds and waterfowl of sanctuary.

With living conditions so difficult, human activity here probably ended for several centuries. The climate continued to change; annual rainfall lessened, evaporation from lake surfaces increased, and water levels consequently began to recede. Plant life thrived, however, and grass became more prevalent, indicating an ecological environment somewhere between the moist, cool forest and the drier desert extreme. As the grassland spread and lakes and marshes dwindled to only scattered springs and seeps, making dependable water sources scarce, the ancestors of the historic Klamath and Modoc peoples, who drifted back into southern Oregon and northern California focused on the lakes, streams, and marshes for their homesites. To replace the earlier cave dwellings, small permanent winter hamlets were constructed on high ground near the water. As the climate and the land continued to change, lifestyles of necessity became more diversified and ultimately specialized. The large numbers of fishhooks and manos, metates, and mortars for pounding, grinding, and milling seeds and roots found by archeologists confirm a growing dependency on the water and plant foods for nourishment. Increased population shifts, facilitated by a friendlier climate, inevitably resulted in an exchange of techniques relative to both technological processes and food acquisition. By 4,500 years ago, environmental conditions were fairly stable and the customs and living patterns developed that were present when whites arrived.

C. Historic Indian Occupation of the Crater Lake Vicinity

South-central Oregon was occupied primarily by divisions of at least two linguistic families. The Klamath and Modoc tribes constituted the Lutuamian division of the Shapwailutan linguistic group. The Klamaths were found on Upper Klamath Lake, around Klamath Marsh, and also frequented the Williamson and Sprague river shores, while the Modocs were based at Little Klamath Lake, Modoc Lake, Tule Lake, in the Lost River Valley, and at Clear Lake, although they often extended as far east as Goose Lake. [3] The peoples of the Northern Plateau were wanderers, leading a somewhat impoverished lifestyle. Hunting and fishing were continual pursuits, but secondary to gathering. The quasi-nomadic tendencies of these groups resulted in a lack of cultural complexity, so that they have been studied mainly in terms of their relationship to their natural surroundings. [4]

   1. The Klamaths

The ancestors of the modern Klamath Indians who ultimately inhabited the area east of Crater Lake and south along the shores of Klamath Lake were probably contemporaries of the early Fort Rock inhabitants. The Klamaths had originally relied mainly on hunting, but the presence nearby of bodies of water teeming with fish, fowl, and plant life encouraged advances in tool technology and food preparation techniques that enabled them to become more diversified wild food gatherers. Ultimately the Klamaths became dependent for their sustenance primarily upon the marshes and the chain of lakes forming the headwaters of the Klamath River. They settled in semi-subterranean earth lodges in small hamlets on the lake shores in the winter months, but during the summer pursued a more migratory course, utilizing mat-covered lodges for shelter and participating in root-, seed-, and berry-gathering activities, fishing, and the hunting of small game.

The environment had much to offer. Marshes teemed with geese and ducks shot with cane arrows or captured by large nets that either engulfed diving birds or were thrown over ones that flew or swam within reach. Mussels lined stream bottoms, while salmon, trout, and whitefish swarmed in the rivers and lakes. Freshwater fishing became a year-round activity; early white explorers and settlers often noted fish being dried on scaffolds and pine saplings. Wokas, or camas lily plants, were probably the most important aspect of their diet, and their gathering became a formalized process. After these wild water-lily plants withered, leaving only a pod with small, shiny, dark seeds, the starchy bulbs were harvested. Great mounds were amassed and stored for winter use, either dried and cooked whole or pounded, and molded into small cakes that were then baked before storage. A full season's labor was spent in picking pods, drying them, and grinding them into mush. [5]

The gradual acquisition of horses by trading with Plains tribes to the east produced sudden and dramatic changes in the social and political structure of Klamath culture. By the 1840s the Klamaths had so many horses that they were considered notable adversaries in war. In addition to the taking of booty from neighboring peoples, emphasis was laid on the capture of slaves, and several of the Plateau groups found themselves middlemen in a profitable slave-horse trading business. [6] By the time whites began settling in southern Oregon, the Klamaths possessed a well-established lifeway emphasizing a hunting and gathering economy; the local autonomy of isolated hamlets, or villages; a basic material culture with unelaborate ceremonial activities; and a religion centering on Shamanism and mythology. [7]

   2. The Modocs

Although the Klamaths and Modocs were once closely associated, they separated into more distinct tribal entities sometime around the late 1770s. By the time of white intrusion into the Tule Lake area, the Modocs were clearly an individual group, calling themselves the "Lake People." Possessing a stone-age technology prior to 1800, within the next forty years, following the introduction of horses, they widened their horizons considerably. They not only acquired a reputation among their neighbors (especially the Pit River Indians, Shastas, Paiutes, and Upland Takelmas) as fearsome raiders, but they also became astute businessmen who traded captives for horses and white men's trade goods.

The region dominated by the Modoc tribe comprised a small strip of land east of the Cascade Range and straddling both sides of the present-day Oregon-California line. These tribesmen had at least twenty semi-permanent winter villages situated alongside lakes and streams in peaceful valleys. The one farthest north was located on the present site of Klamath Falls, while another stood at Hot (Willow) Creek, four more along Lower Klamath Lake, four on Lost River, seven on the shores of Tule Lake, and three farther east. An abundance of foodstuffs was at hand. Numerous ducks, geese, swans, pelicans, loons, and gulls could be found on the waterways, and salmon and other fish were smoked and stored for the winter. Turtle flesh provided sustenance and their shells were fashioned into bowls and utensils. Nearby plains and ridges provided a variety of large and small game, including deer, antelope, mountain sheep, elk, bears, rabbits, squirrels, and prairie chickens, while water lilies in the bottomlands and marshes could be supplemented by other tuberous roots, such as wild turnips, and by wild plant seeds. Tules, or rushes, found along the lake shores were woven into mats, baskets, and mocassins, and were also used as thatch for Modoc houses.

Headquartered in the Tule Lake basin, the Modocs frequented the east and south shores of Klamath Lake, roamed throughout the Butte Creek country farther south, and ventured as far north as Lost River. Despite their wanderings, they were always assured of a defensive stronghold in the twisted passages, caves, and trenches of the formidable Lava Beds area of present northern California. A small but hardy group, skilled in warfare and in eking out an existence in an often harsh environment, the Modocs were to prove a formidable adversary for white men after contact brought these two dissimilar cultures into conflict. [8]

II. White Men Slowly Penetrate the Southern Oregon Wilderness

A. Early Exploration by Fur Traders

The first Euro-Americans to enter southern Oregon were probably French-Canadian trappers working for the Hudson's Bay Company, whose early records mention the Rogue River and the Rogue Indians, both of which had acquired their name from the character of the natives, who were considered "fierce and warlike," habitually stealing traps and their contents from the early fur hunters. [1] In 1820 Thomas McKay penetrated the Willamette Valley, but withdrew after encountering hostile Indians along the Umpqua River, He was followed six years later by Alexander Roderick McLeod, whose small party of four white men and nine Indians slowly progressed along the Oregon coast in a search for furs. At the same time, Chief Factor John McLoughlin of the Hudson's Bay Company outfitted a strong brigade to penetrate what was thought to be rich fur land to the south of Fort Vancouver and investigate its economic potential. The group was joined by David Douglas, a British botanist then collecting samples in the Northwest. Upon reaching the Umpqua River, Douglas left the trappers and went alone into the nearby forested hills, where he was well received by the Indians. [2]

The quest for beaver continued to bring others to southern Oregon. In 1827 Peter Skene Ogden, head of the Hudson's Bay Company brigades combing the Snake River country, led a trapping and exploring expedition to the area that sought furs and also the location of a large river rumored to have been found there. They reached Klamath Lake in December 1826--the first adventurers to enter the heart of the Rogue country. In early 1828 Jedediah Smith and a party of eighteen men, driving 300 head of horses intended for sale at the annual American fur rendezvous in what is now Wyoming, set out for the Rogue country from the south. His miserable journey, through the thick brush, dense, wet redwood forests, and abysmal canyons of the Trinity and Klamath river areas in northwestern California ended in disaster in July on the Umpqua River in Oregon when fourteen of his party were ambushed by Indians. Four survivors, including Smith, ultimately reached Fort Vancouver nearly 200 miles north. [3] During the next twenty years, several different sites on the Umpqua River became small trading centers, but no intensive efforts at colonization were made.

B. New Land Routes Through Southern Oregon Studied

A land route had been opened along the Oregon coast all the way from San Francisco Bay by Alexander McLeod during the winter of 1828-29, following the watershed of the Eel River across the Trinity Mountains and north through the Rogue Valley to the Willamette. Another expedition followed the Oregon coast to the Umpqua River, swung south toward California, and passed through the Rogue Valley to Klamath Lake. An Oregon-California land route was definitely established by 1833, with many persons taking advantage of this trail despite frequent confrontations with the Indians. [4]

In 1841 Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, commander of the U.S. Navy South Seas Surveying and Exploring Expedition, ordered a detachment under George F . Emmons to explore the land route between the Columbia River and San Francisco Bay. Accompanied by a party of thirty-nine that included several soldiers and seamen, an artist, a geologist, a naturalist, two botanists, guides, and hunters, Emmons crossed the Umpqua Mountains, passed Rocky Point, continued on over the ridges near present Gold Hill, followed northeast up the Rogue River to the vicinity of present Ashland, turned off from Bear Creek, and ascended the Siskiyous on over to the Klamath River and into California. [5] In the spring of 1846 John C. Fremont came through the area on his third official exploring expedition to the West and camped on the west edge of Klamath Lake during a survey mission for the government. The camp was surprised by a band of Klamath Indians who killed three of his scouts, and in reprisal the Fremont party attacked a large village or rancheria of Indians in the direction of Tule Lake. Several tribesmen were killed, the rest driven away, and their wickiups and racks of dried fish burned. This incident perhaps set the tone for future white-Modoc relations. [6]

C. Opening of the Southern Emigrant Route

Although the first overland travelers from the East to Oregon faithfully followed the Columbia River, by the mid-1840s other routes were being sought. Mounting tensions between the Hudson's Bay Company and the growing number of American settlers in the region demanded a new route well removed from Company posts and influence. In June 1846 Jesse and Lindsay Applegate, Levi Scott, and other residents of the Willamette Valley, having formed a group known as the Old South Road Company, left their homes to open a new wagon road connecting with the Humboldt Trail. This one would be free from jeopardy by the British on the Columbia River in case of war. It would also provide a shorter, easier route from Fort Hall, Idaho, to the Willamette Valley by avoiding the treacherous Snake River portion of the Oregon Trail and the difficult section near The Dalles of the Columbia River that involved dangerous whirlpools, strong currents, and. long portages. Their route passed by or near present Albany, Corvallis, Eugene, Cottage Grove, Roseburg, Grants Pass, Jacksonville, Medford, and Ashland in Oregon, and then past Klamath Lake and along the border between Oregon and California. It entered the latter state via Surprise Valley, continuing on into Nevada and across the Black Rock Desert. From that point it reached the Humboldt River near present Humboldt, Nevada, and, finally, Fort Hall. Here the company met an immigrant train of 150 people that they brought back with them to the Willamette settlements, although not without severe travails and hardships, including Indian attacks, disease, barren deserts, and low food supplies. Less than half the party lived to reach the valley in these first wagons to arrive from the south. This passage, which would be increasingly improved upon and used, was known variously as the Southern Route to the Oregon Trail, the Southern Emigrant Route, or Applegate's Cutoff. It was instrumental in opening up lands south of the Willamette to settlement and continued to be favored by a few immigrants to southern Oregon. A large portion of it was followed by '49ers bound for northern California until Indian hostilities seven years later interrupted the flow of traffic. [7]

D. Gold Rush of 1849 Accelerates Oregon Settlement

In July 1848 a supply schooner sailing into the Columbia River harbor brought news of the discovery of gold in California by James Marshall at Sutter's Mill on a branch of the American River. Overnight the rush was on. In Oregon it turned immediate attention to the Mother Lode country and brought startling changes to the Columbia River valley's pattern of settlement. New impetus was added to westward migration, resulting in a greater movement of Americans to the Far West than ever before. Traffic along the Oregon and California trails swelled to flood proportions, and new routes and shortcuts were blazed by impatient goldseekers. Oregon settlers were not left behind in the great Gold Rush of '49. While those that could afford it took immediate passage on ships heading for the California coast, others less fortunate hurried south with packtrains and wagons. Among the earliest in the fields, the farmers, soldiers, tradesmen, and officials of Oregon who joined the mad rush fared better than later arrivals and helped to open and drain the virgin fields in northern California. By wintertime scores of these lucky individuals had filled pokes with thousands of dollars worth of gold dust. Married men in particular began drifting home to develop the resources of Oregon, having apprised the profitable market that existed in California for foodstuffs and lumber. An estimated two million dollars in gold flowed into Oregon during early 1849. Merchant ships supplying California entered the Columbia River daily to trade, millowners made staggering profits, and the wages of laborers multiplied. [8]

E. Gold Mining Begins in Southern Oregon

The first contact with the southwest Oregon coast from the sea was part of a concerted effort to open supply routes into northern California during the Gold Rush period of the late 1840s and early 1850s. Vessels would probe the mouths of coastal rivers and then unload exploring parties and send them into south-trending canyons to see if roads could be opened into the interior. Interest and settlement in southwest Oregon was stimulated by the discovery of gold in the sands of some of the ocean beaches north of the Coquille River, resulting in the establishment of various towns near the mouth of the Rogue River that flourished for two seasons before the boom faded. Miners continued panning the Applegate River sands, pushed up the Rogue, and mined the gravel bars in the ravines of the Coastal Mountains. Packers traveling between the Willamette Valley and Sacramento, while grazing their stock on the meadows of the upper Rogue, also found time to pan gold in the Rogue River tributaries. The Willamette Valley settlers who were supplying surplus crops to the California goldfields were using the inland route mentioned earlier to drive packtrains and cattle across the Umpqua and upper Rogue river valleys over the Siskiyou Mountains to the Mother Lode country.

As surface mining declined in California, prospectors began turning their attention northward, and by 1850 gold fever was spreading into the Rogue and Umpqua river valleys of southern Oregon. New, important discoveries of gold would soon be made in Oregon by adventurers fanning out from the Mother Lode and Trinity Mountain districts. The first major strike in southern Oregon occurred in the Rogue Valley on Josephine Creek in Josephine County in 1851. Either later that year or early in 1852 a more widely-publicized discovery was made by a packer James Cluggage and a miner John R. Pool, who were transporting supplies between Yreka, California, and towns in the Willamette Valley. While attempting to recover some stray pack mules about thirty miles across the Oregon line, near Table Rock, Cluggage turned toward the hills to the west. He followed a stream later known as Jackson Creek, and in an area where the stream left the hills, later known as Rich Gulch, found a strike so rich that the early arrivals were said to have averaged about one hundred ounces of dust and nuggets a day.

News of this gold discovery spread rapidly during the spring of 1852, and hundreds of men joined the modest rush to the Rogue Valley. The new boom town of Jacksonville in the foothills on the western edge of the plains soon became the commercial and transportation center of the southern Oregon goldfields. These discoveries at Josephine Creek and at Jacksonville were followed by many more--at Sailor Diggin's and at the Applegate diggings in southern Jackson County in 1852; at the Foote's Creek diggings, fifteen miles west of Jacksonville, and at Willow Springs, five miles north, in the fall of that year; and at Dry Diggings near Grants Pass. [9]

III. Discovery of Crater Lake

A. John Wesley Hillman

The question of which white man actually gazed on Crater Lake for the first time has been a matter of dispute, due to the fact that there have been several re-discoveries made unknowingly by different parties. Although claims for its discovery in the 1840s have been made in the name of John C. Fremont and others, the first authenticated visit was not made until 1853. By that time Oregon's first real gold rush was rapidly expanding, as parties swarmed not only over the Jackson Creek and Rich Gulch area, but penetrated deeper into the interior to make new discoveries along the Applegate, Illinois, and Rogue rivers. It was interest aroused by one party of California goldseekers, whose secretive camp outside Jacksonville and surreptitious laying in of provisions for an expedition to the Upper Rogue River attracted the attention of several Oregon miners, that led to Crater Lake's discovery. While quenching his thirst at a local saloon, one member of the California party became loquacious and was heard to mention having knowledge of the whereabouts of the fabulously rich "Lost Cabin Mine." This was a mythical lost mine searched for as early as 1850 by miners in northern California but that also was speculated about in southern Oregon in reference to a mine located a year earlier in Josephine County. The four California owners of that property were forced to bury a hoard of gold when attacked by Indians. Although the sole survivor of the group had been persuaded to divulge certain landmarks in the area, the cabin and the buried treasure had never been found.

As soon as the California prospectors left town to continue their search, a party of about eleven Oregon hopefuls, including a Mr. Dodd, John Hillman, James L. Loudon, Patrick McManus, George Ross, Isaac G. Skeeters, and Henry Klippel, was in hot pursuit, determined to follow the Californians up the Rogue and share in the imagined wealth. Hillman was at this time about twenty-one years of age, a footloose young man from Albany, New York, who had stumbled into Jacksonville in his search for gold. It was not long before this party's presence was detected, and in Hillman's words, it became a game of hide-and-seek, until rations on both sides began to get low. The Californians would push through the brush, scatter, double backwards on their trail, and then camp in the most inaccessible places to be found, and it sometimes puzzled us to locate and camp near enough to watch them. [1]

This game of cat-and-mouse took on serious undertones as each group's supply of provisions became exhausted. Such desperate straits were reached that ultimately a truce was declared and the parties determined to hunt for game and search for the mine together. They soon realized that they had blundered off course, but were unaware that they were far east of their objective and in fact nearing the headwaters of the Rogue River. Pitching camp on the side of a mountain, the two parties mutually agreed that only the hardier members should continue the quest. Hillman was one of these.

The first day out of camp, the following event occurred:

On the evening of the first day, while riding up a long, sloping mountain, we suddenly came in sight of water, and were very much surprised, as we did not expect to see any lakes, and did not know but what we had come in sight of and close to Klamath Lake, and not until my mule stopped within a few feet of the rim of Crater Lake did I look down, and if I had been riding a blind mule I firmly believe I would have ridden over the edge to death and destruction. We came to the lake a very little to the right of a small sloping butte or mountain, situated in the lake, with a top somewhat flattened. Every man of the party gazed with wonder at the sight before him, and each in his own peculiar way gave expression to the thoughts within him; but we had no time to lose, and after rolling some boulders down the side of the lake, we rode to the left, as near the rim as possible, past the butte, looking to see an outlet for the lake, but we could find none. [2]

Hillman and his party had reached the rim a little west of Victor Rock, a projecting ledge on the caldera wall later covered by the Sinnott Memorial building. From this vantage point they could see snow reaching clear down to the water's edge, and several years later Hillman recalled that, awed by the beauty of the scene, he proposed descending to the lake, but finally deferred to the unanimous vote of the others to return to camp as quickly as possible. They continued along the rim for a short while, however, estimating the lake to be at least twenty miles in diameter and their position as about 125 miles from Jacksonville. (The lake is actually six miles across at its widest point, about twenty-six miles in circumference, and roughly sixty miles northeast of Jacksonville.) The men noticed Wizard Island, but evidently failed to discern Phantom Ship in the distance. Because they strongly desired to memorialize their discovery, several names were suggested for this glorious natural wonder. A vote was finally taken between "Mysterious Lake" and "Deep Blue Lake," with the latter being chosen (although the discovery was occasionally referred to afterwards as "Lake Mystery"). In an attempt to document the event, a slip of paper containing the dicoverers names was slipped onto the head of a stick firmly fixed into the rim edge.

Upon their return to Jacksonville, the miners reported their find, which for several reasons was almost totally ignored. Partly responsible for this lack of fanfare was the fact that the account of the discovery could be spread only by word of mouth. No newspaper was published in southern Oregon until the Table Rock Sentinel began circulation in 1855. In addition, all members of the party had been so disoriented and exhausted when they found the lake that they were unable afterwards to describe its location accurately. More influential in downplaying the outcome of the search for the Lost Cabin Mine was the general Indian unrest in the area that kept the settlers' minds occupied when they were not intent on the search for gold. Nevertheless, for lack of earlier documentation, Hillman is thought to be the first white man to gaze upon this beautiful mountain lake and is credited with its discovery on June 12, 1853. [3]

B. Chauncey Nye

Nothing more was heard of the lake for several years. By 1861 new gold discoveries were being made on the John Day and Powder rivers of eastern Oregon. On October 21, 1862, six miners, including Chauncey Nye, James Leyman, Joseph Bowers (or J. Brandlin), Hiram Abbott, S.H. Smith, and John W. Sessions, were crossing the Cascades on their way to the Rogue River valley from the Granite Creek mines on the North Fork of the John Day River. While searching for a camping place for the night and a high summit from which to view the surrounding countryside, they too stumbled across "a large lake, encircled on all sides by steep and almost perpendicular bluff banks, fully as high as that we were standing upon." [4] Nye and his party estimated the lake to be about twenty-five miles in circumference, the rim at their discovery point to be about 3,000 feet above the water, and the site itself to be about eighty miles northeast of Jacksonville. Thinking at first that they might be able to obtain drinking water from the lake surface, they rolled large rocks down the wall to ascertain the distance involved. They soon decided the water was inaccessible without ropes.

The Nye party noted not only the butte-shaped island near the south end of the lake, rising several hundred feet above the surface, but also the abundance of bunch grass and scarcity of timber. Unlike The Hillman party's experience, no difficulty concerning names arose, and the lake was unanimously dubbed "Blue Lake" because of its intense color. The importance of the Nye party's discovery lies in the fact that they not only authenticated the lake's existence and correctly pinpointed its location by word of mouth, but also did so by publishing the first printed account of it in the Oregon Sentinel (Jacksonville) of November 8, 1862. They also named a prominent volcanic core peak in the area which they had utilized as an observation post to determine their position relative to the Rogue River valley. On top of the mountain they had found remains of a circular stone parapet, indicating its possible use in the past as a watch tower by the Indians. In deference to their sympathies in the ongoing Civil War, it became "Union Peak." [5]

C. Captain Franklin B. Sprague

Although the Nye party account of its discovery had more exposure because of its publication in a newspaper, apparently readers were not sufficiently interested to attempt the journey to the lake themselves. Further explorations by prospectors were probably rare or even nonexistent due to the lack of mineral content, especially gold, in the surrounding mountains. In 1863 the small military post of Fort Klamath was established north of Upper Klamath Lake. Manned by cavalry and infantry, the objective of the garrison was to quell any Indian disturbances and to prevent harassment of emigrant wagons passing through the Klamath Basin by roving tribesmen. Another more peaceful duty of the fort's inhabitants was to improve the old trails connecting major supply points in eastern and western Oregon and build new roads as needed.

One of the new wagon routes being projected in July 1865 would trend north from Fort Klamath, across the Wood River valley, up along present Annie Creek to its rugged canyon, thence across the mountains to Union Creek, the upper Rogue River, and eventually on to Jacksonville. Captain Franklin B. Sprague and twenty men from Company I, First Oregon Volunteer Infantry, were assigned the task of cutting the timber and building this road. Hunters were dispatched daily to obtain fresh venison to supplement the salt pork given the road crew. On August 1, 1865, two hunters, John M. Corbell and Francis M. Smith, accidentally came upon a lake and, oblivious of its previous discovery, excitedly reported to Sprague the finding of a large body of water in a deep hole. His curiosity aroused, Sprague determined to see the sight for himself as soon as possible.

According to accounts by Sergeant Orson A. Stearns and W.B. Gorman, the opportunity for Sprague to see the lake did not arise until about August 12, when he left Fort Klamath to find the road crew in order to solicit volunteers to assist him in an operation against the Snake Indians. This duty accomplished, and before returning to the fort, Sprague and Stearns, accompanied by several civilians from Jacksonville who had come to the area to inspect the new wagon road and also see the wondrous lake of which they had heard rumors, set off to find it. This party, including William Bybee, James Cluggage (of Jacksonville fame), J.B. Coats, Peyton Foote (sometimes referred to as Peyton Ford), Orson A. Stearns, and Sprague, visited the lake on August 24. [6] Stearns's account notes that

We reached the bluff, overlooking the lake on the west or south-west side, about 9 o'clock in the morning of a clear day, and for the first time feasted our eyes upon what we then pronounced the most beautiful and majestic body of water we had ever beheld. [7]

Trying with difficulty to "comprehend the majestic beauties of the scenery," Captain Sprague found that his thoughts would "wander back thousands of years to the time when, where now is a placid sheet of water, there was a lake of fire, throwing its cinders and ashes to vast distances in every direction." [8]

Enchanted by the blueness of the water, Sergeant Stearns determined to make his way down to the shore. Accompanied by Peyton Ford (Foote), and after a slow, seat-of-the-pants descent, Stearns reached the water and fired a pistol as a sign of success. Seeing that the feat was not impossible, Sprague and the civilian Coats soon joined them at the bottom. Although no fish were observed in the clear water, the sighting of a kingfisher suggested the possibility of their presence. According to the story, Stearns, the first person to reach the shoreline, was given the honor of naming the lake. As he hesitated in thought, his captain suggested the name "Lake Majesty," and this was agreed upon.

Later Sprague philosophized "I do not know who first saw this lake, nor do I think it should be named after the discoverer." [9] It seems odd that, although Sprague mentioned in his August 25 account that "the whole surroundings prove this lake to be the crater of an extinct volcano," [10] the appropriateness of such a name evidently did not occur to him.

Sprague estimated that the rim rose perpendicularly between 700 and 800 feet above the water and that the lake was roughly circular and between seven and eight miles in diameter. The group also noted the cone-shaped and densely wooded Wizard Island near the western shore. A slightly different account of this event was given by Judge William M. Colvig of Medford, Oregon, in 1931. He stated that twenty-five soldiers on a trip from Fort Klamath camped near the present park headquarters area and that from there some of the men wandered up to the rim and saw the lake. A vote among the members of the party resulted in the name of Lake Majesty. [11] One of the members of the detachment, R.J. Clark, later recalled that the lake was found during an expedition to locate a pass for the wagon road through the Cascades when it suddenly came into full view of Captain Sprague and Sergeant Stearns who were walking a little apart from the rest of the company. [12]

Whatever the precise details of the third discovery of Crater Lake, this was the first party known to have actually reached the water's edge. An account of the trip and of the christening of the lake, written by Sprague on August 25--the second printed story of its existence--appeared in the Oregon Sentinel (Jacksonville) on September 9, 1865. Several aspects of Sprague's visit to the lake are notable: his perceptions of it as being of volcanic origin, his description of Wizard Island as a remnant of volcanic activity, and his observations that the lake "will be visited by thousands hereafter, and some person would do well to build upon its banks a house where the visitor could be entertained, and to keep a boat, or boats upon its waters, that its beauties might be seen to a better advantage." [13]

D. Later Visits to Crater Lake

In mid-August 1865 an article appeared in the Oregon Sentinel mentioning the visit a week earlier of a party of citizens to "Great Sunken Lake" in the Cascade Mountains northeast of Jacksonville. Obviously referring to Crater Lake, it mentioned that "no living man ever has, and probably never will, be able to reach the water's edge." [14] These visitors fired a rifle into the lake several times in an attempt to ascertain the distance from the rim to the water, but evidently did little other exploring. It must be assumed that this group was probably composed of visiting citizens from Jacksonville who had gone out to inspect the progress on the Fort Klamath-Jacksonville wagon road and view the lake, Stearns stating that "the news of its [Crater Lake's] discovery having already reached Jacksonville, and several besides the volunteers, who were building the road, having already seen it." [15]

Shortly afterwards a party of eleven men, including John Bilger, J.B. Coats, Isaac Constant, T. Constant, James D. Fay, Herman Helms, a Mr. Kibbert, James Layman, John Neuber, W.A. Owen, and T. Willitt, guided by James D. Fay, arrived on the west side of the lake on September 3, 1865, during a hunting trip to Diamond Peak. On this side of the lake Fay and Helms found a gentler slope enabling their descent to the water, where they inscribed their names and the date on a nearby rock. Intrigued by the topography of Wizard Island, they resolved to return and bring a boat with which they could reach the island and explore its wooded slopes and craterlike summit. [16]

The reports now reaching surrounding settlements regarding the beautiful lake, its remoteness, and its many unique features were beginning to capture the imagination of more adventurous spirits. On October 9, 1865, a large party of citizens from Fort Klamath, including two women--Miss Annie Gaines and Mrs. O.T. Brown--accompanied by some army officers, visited the lake. During their sojourn there, Miss Gaines became the first woman to descend to the water's edge. Annie Spring, and later the creek and canyon, were named in her honor. [17]

An 1868 editorial in the Oregon Sentinel mentions a party of gentlemen involved in mid-September in preparations for exploring the lake and taking soundings from a homemade boat. This may refer to the projected Sutton expedition, which, however, did not leave until the next summer. The article mentions that during the previous week a Mr. Cawley and a Mr. Beall, of the Rogue River valley area, had visited the lake with Captain Sprague, and two of the men had descended to the water. [18]

E. James Sutton Party

The lake did not acquire its present name until visited by a party from Jacksonville in July 1869. Headed by James M. Sutton, then in charge of the Oregon Sentinel, the party consisted of J.B. Coats, James D. Fay, Miss Annie Fay, David Linn and family, Miss Fannie Rails, the James Sutton family, Mrs. Catherine Shook, and John Sutton. Leaving town on July 27, the group proceeded along the Rogue River road to its junction with the Fort Klamath road, at which point the wagons turned east toward the lake, blazing a road nearly to the rim. Here they were joined by Colonel J.E. Ross, Lieutenant S.B. Thoburn, and a Mr. Ish from Fort Klamath.

Sections of a canvas and wood boat had been brought in one of the wagons and were soon assembled and lowered carefully over the rocks to the water. On August 4 Coats, James Fay, David Linn, James Sutton, and Lieutenant Thoburn set out on a perilous voyage to Wizard Island, in the first boat navigated by white men on Crater Lake. Considered to be the first human beings to set foot on the island, they climbed up to the crater where they left a record of their visit in a tin can cached in rocks at the summit. The boat was left at the lake on their departure from the area about ten days later, having proven too frail to circumnavigate and sound the entire lake. One sounding was taken, however, 550 feet deep half a mile from the island, and from the slope of the floor indicated at this point, the men estimated the lake to be from 1,500 to 2,000 feet at the deepest part, remarkably close to the actual depth of 1,932 feet. The men renamed this geologic wonder "Crater Lake" because of the crater discovered in the top of Wizard Island. Upon their return home, Sutton published a graphic account of the trip in the August 21 and 28, 1869, editions of the Oregon Sentinel. Here the appellation "Crater Lake" appears in print for the first time. [19]

IV. Indian Perceptions of Crater Lake

A. Early Observations by White Men

Although it is relatively easy to document the early impressions of Crater Lake gained by white men, it is much more difficult to assess the role it played in early aboriginal society in southern Oregon. Horace Albright, in an entertaining book on the day-to-day life of a park ranger in which he periodically contemplates the heritage of our parks, stresses

the Indian's reverence for the wonders that are now the national parks. The Indian lived daily in the shadow, not only of the mountains, the cliffs, and the waterfalls, but of death. He lived as a wild thing lived, by the caprices of Nature. Life was to him fickle, hazardous, difficult. [1]

Most early references to the Indians' relationship to Crater Lake tend to place emphasis on their "fear" of it without explaining that their timorous attitude was based on feelings of awe and reverence, leading naturally to reticence in mentioning the place to white men. As one writer explained, "none of the people of the valley of lakes, meadows and rivers dare to regard the land of Gay-was [Crater Lake] carelessly, for it is a High Place and sacred to the tribe." [2]

Shortly after the Hillman party's discovery of "Deep Blue Lake," they encountered a band of Indians whom they questioned about it. "None would acknowledge such a lake existed," one member of the group reported. "We learned from a medicine man that this place was looked upon as sacred, and death came to any Indian who gazed upon the lake." [3] It was, in fact, the general consensus of most early settlers in the area that

there is probably no point of interest in America that so completely overcomes the ordinary Indian with fear as Crater lake. From time immemorial no power has been strong enough to induce them to approach within sight of it. For a paltry sum they will engage to guide you thither, but before reaching the mountain top will leave you to proceed alone. To the savage mind it is clothed with a deep veil of mystery and is the abode of all manner of demons and unshapely monsters. [4]

Later writings have perpetuated this belief:

The Indians felt this way about it [Crater Lake], too. They lived on the Klamath Lakes not many miles away, yet before the white man came none but the medicine men dared to look upon Crater Lake. [5]

And again:

The Indians long believed that only punishment could come to men who looked upon a lake that was sacred to the spirits. 'Do not look upon this place,' the legend warned, 'for it will mean death or lasting sorrow.' [6]

One of the features of Crater Lake that was reportedly held in awe by the Indians was the jagged island known as Phantom Ship:

Near the base of Dutton Cliff stands a solitary rock, probably one hundred feet high, by two hundred in length and nearly the same breadth, that, while not seen by the present generation of Indians, is nevertheless known to them, and is a special object of superstitious dread. They consider it as a peculiarly ferocious monster, but are unable to describe its characteristics. . . . I have never learned its Indian name, but among the whites it is known as the Phantom Ship. [7]

A party of California adventurers who journeyed to Crater Lake in 1896, besides mentioning a Fort Klamath Indian's unwillingness to accompany them to the lake rim, noted that

around the lake innumerable pinnacles and beetling crags of black, crimson, and yellow bristled to the sky in a vast amphitheatre. Yonder, arching caverns pierced the base of a fearful precipice, whose frowning walls glowered upon the rugged rock island of the Phantom Ship, a fantastic object of unspeakable dread to the Klamath Indians. [8]

Seldon Kirk, a distinguished head of the Klamath Tribal Council, reportedly stated that the story of the Indians' fear of Crater Lake was greatly exaggerated, for he had even swum in it as a boy. Instead, he reasoned, their avoidance was probably due to the fact that it contained neither fish nor game and, in addition, required a long, steep descent in soft pumice to reach the water. If one considers these factors, plus the possibility of encountering an arrow from an unfriendly Umpqua Indian, "then the taboo takes on a meaning not based on religion but on common sense." [9]

B. Role of Crater Lake in Shamanistic Quests

Several types of personal crises in an individual's life were perceived as occasions for observing a quest involving fasting, isolation, strenuous physical activities, and ritual bathing. These included puberty, chronic illness, the birth or death of one's child, the death of a spouse, or even consistent and heavy gambling losses. The basic ritual pattern was identical for all these situations and consisted of wandering about the woods and hills in areas remote from human settlement where a prophetic and satisfying dream was sought by engaging in arbitrary and energy-consuming activities such as branch-breaking and mountain climbing, followed by short periods of sleep. In all but the puberty ritual, preparation for the dream required ritual swimming in pools or streams significant because of their mythological associations. Most Modoc quest sites were within their own territory, but sometimes distant trips were made, and Crater Lake, in Klamath Indian territory, was often visited. [10] These waters were used to purify oneself and thereby gain knowledge, strength of body and spirit, and, hopefully, the secrets of the gods. During drought years men made pilgrimmages to Crater Lake and other places known for powerful spirits in order to fill small skin sacks with water that was then poured ceremoniously over the marshes in hopes of restoring them to life. [11]

Crater Lake's role as a quest site was noted by some observant visitors as early as 1873:

Here their medicine-men still come, as they always came in the olden time, to study spiritual wisdom and learn the secrets of life from the Great Spirit. In the solitude of these wilds they fasted and did penance; to the shores of the wierd [sic] lake they ventured with great danger, to listen to the winds that came from no one knew where--borne there to roam the pent-up waters and bear the mysterious whispers of unseen beings, whose presence they doubted not, and whose words they longed to understand. They watched the shifting shadows of night and day; the hues of sun-light, moon-light, and star-light; saw white sails glisten on the moon-lit waters; caught the sheen of noiseless paddles, as they lifted voiceless spray, and having become inspired with the supernal, they bore back to their tribes charmed lives and souls fenced in with mystery. It is by such inspiration that the Indian medicine-men become infused with the superstitious belief that they are more wise than they are mortal. [12]

Three years later another visitor remarked:

Other lakes have sandy or muddy margins, sloping shores, waves, and sound and motion. Crater Lake has none of these. It lies blue, placid, silent, like a dream of majesty and beauty. How would the imaginative and polytheistic Greeks have sanctified to their gods such a spot as this! So indeed, do the native Indians, who never approach this lake except when preparing themselves by religious ceremonies for "Medicine-Men" or great warriors. Around its margin, at some little distance away, are heaps of stones carefully piled, having with them a significance pointing to their solemn spiritual rites at this place. To them this is sacred ground. [13]

The assumption that the Indians believed death would result from viewing the lake is questionable, but it is true that the Klamath and Modoc Indians in the vicinity of Crater Lake felt the lake should be respected for its status as the dwelling place of powerful spirits and approached only when necessary to perform certain ceremonial acts. The medicine men, or shamans, of the tribes who participated in diligent quests for power given in the form of songs and visions were much respected:

The Indians view Crater lake and its surroundings as holy ground and approach its mystic waters with reverence and awe. They attach to its existence the thought that the Great Spirit hallows it by his presence. The ancient traditions of the tribes relate many supernatural events handed down with the mythical lore of the past. Only medicine men frequented the sacred spot, and when one felt called as teacher and healer it was a feature of his novitiate to spend weeks in fasting, and communion with the dead and prayer to the Sahullah Tyees, and so become imbued with inspiration to qualify him for his work. Beside this wonder-shore they saw visions and dreamed dreams, and when they came down from the mountain mysteries to mingle with mortals they brought the odor of sanctity with them and were viewed with reverence as having communed with the unknown world. [14]

C. Indian Myths Explaining Geological Occurrences

The religious tales and creation myths of the Modocs and Klamaths and other Northwestern tribes revolve around ethereal beings, such as gods and spirits, and also around more visible elements, such as the sun, moon, and stars. One author, Stanton Lapham, feels that these stories "are to be admired for their pure imaginative beauty, astonishing us with their suggestion of the mythological characters and conduct of the gods and hero-creations of the ancient Greeks and early Romans." [15] He points out that, as exemplified by the creation myths for Crater Lake,

the idea of an Above-world, and a Below world, the one a region of light and all things beautiful and enjoyable, and the other a place of terror and everlasting darkness, with the god rulers Skell and Llao, and their attendant servants, spirits usually taking the forms of animals . . . was firmly impressed in the minds of the Klamath people. [16]

So also were the effects of good and evil on human hopes, conduct, and aspirations. The stories and legends of Indian peoples reveal their thinking patterns, philosophy, and most of all their identification and interrelationship with animals and with Nature, whose power and presence was always felt. By countless acts of self-sacrifice, prayer, and ceremony, the Indian sought the pity and friendship of the supernatural.

Elaborate myths were passed down from the ancestors of the Klamath and Modoc tribes to explain the earth-shaking phenomena that resulted in the formation of the vast Cascade Mountain Range. It is interesting to note that certain myths and legends invented by the Indians of the Northwest to explain the origin and form of many prominent geographical features in their environment, if stripped of their supernatural elements, correlate closely with scientific theories. One of the best examples of the close parallel between an Indian myth and modern geological theory is the Klamath Indian tradition concerning the formation of Crater Lake. According to one author, the basic myth was probably recorded for the first time in 1865, when old Chief Lalek at Fort Klamath related the tale to young William Colvig after the latter's first trip to see the lake.

As Colvig noticed during his years in southern Oregon, many variations of the basic story were circulated, although the essential details remained fairly uniform. Ms. Ella Clark, in a discussion of the relationship between Indian mythology and actual geological occurrences, debated whether or not Colvig's notes on the myth (recorded in 1892 after his earlier notes were lost) might have been influenced by new geological evidence on Mount Mazama s eruption. She determined, however, that they probably had not been, for several reasons. First, no detailed theory on the formation of the caldera was published until 1897; second, Colvig was known to have related the myth to his children several times after he first heard it and was also known to possess a remarkable memory; and third, it does conform with the Klamath Indian belief in a large number of nature spirits and with Indian explanations of eruptions of other volcanic peaks.

Finally, it is not impossible to suppose that human memory goes back several thousand years. Indians were known to have inhabited the area of Mount Mazama before its final eruption, and it is highly logical that the story of such a terrifying event could have become an integral part of tribal history and have been transmitted orally for thousands of years. Oral narration has always been an important part of Indian culture. There is no way of telling, however, how much of the nineteenth-century rendition that Colvig first heard was Klamath history and how much it had been embellished through the years by the imagination of various storytellers.

D. Legends Surrounding Crater Lake

The most common of the legends centering around Crater Lake involve two powerful mythological beings, Skell, lord of the Under-world, and La-o (Llao), god of the Above-world. Their theme is basically good versus evil. One of the most often repeated stories is referred to as the Klamath Legend of La-o:

According to the Mythology of the Klamath and Modoc Indians, the chief spirit who occupied the mystic land of Gaywas, or Crater Lake, was La-o. Under his control were many lesser spirits, who appeared to be able to change their forms at will. Many of these were monsters of various kinds, among them the giant crawfish (or dragon), who could, if he chose, reach up his mighty arms even to the tops of the cliffs and drag down to the cold depths of Crater Lake any too venturesome tourist of the primal days.

The spirits or beings who were under the control of La-o, assumed the forms of many animals of the present day, when they chose to go abroad on dry land, and this was no less true of the other fabulous inhabitants of Klamath land who were dominated by other chief spirits, and who occupied separate localities; all these forms, however, were largely or solely subject to the will of Komoo'kumps, the great spirit.

Now on the north side of Mt. Jackson, or La-o Yaina (La-o's Mountain), the eastern escarpment of which is known as La-o Rock, is a smooth field, sloping a little towards the north, which was a common playground for the fabled inhabitants of Gaywas and neighboring communities.

Skell was a mighty spirit whose realm was the Klamath Marsh country, his capital being near the Yamsay River, on the eastern side of the marsh. He had many subjects who took the forms of birds and beasts when abroad on the land, as the antelope, the bald eagle, the bliwas or golden eagle, among them many of the most sagacious and active of all the beings then upon the earth.

A fierce war occurred between Skell and La-o and their followers which raged for a long time. Finally Skell was stricken down in his own land of Yamsay and his heart was torn from his body and was carried in triumph to La-o Yaina. Then a great gala day was declared and even the followers of Skell were allowed to take part in the games on Mt. Jackson, and the heart of Skell was tossed from hand to hand in the great ball game in which all participated.

If the heart of Skell could be borne away so that it could be restored to his body, he would live again, and so with a secret understanding among themselves the followers of Skell watched for the opportunity to bear it away. Eventually, when it reached the hands of Antelope, he sped away to the eastward like the wind. When nearly exhausted he passed it to the Eagle, and he in his turn to Bliwas, and so on, and although La-o's followers pursued with their utmost speed, they failed to overtake the swift bearers of the precious heart. At last they heard the far away voice of the dove, another of Skell's people, and then they gave up the useless pursuit.

Skell's heart was restored and he lived again, but the war was not over and finally La-o was himself overpowered and slain and his bleeding body was borne to the La-o Yaina, on the very verge of the great cliff, and a false message was conveyed to La-o's monsters in the Lake, that Skell had been killed, instead of La-o, and when a quarter of the body was thrown over, La-o's monsters devoured it, thinking it a part of the body of Skell. Each quarter was thrown over in turn, with the same result, but when the head was thrown into the lake, the monsters recognized it as the head of their master and would not touch it, and so it remains today, an island in the lake, to all people now known as Wizard Island. [17]

This version does not seek to provide a detailed explanation of the destruction of Mount Mazama and the subsequent formation of Crater Lake, but does try to explain the origin of the volcanic cone known today as Wizard Island. This story contains virtually no hint of the volcanic activity that startled the surrounding countryside several thousand years ago.

Another legend attributes the formation of Wizard Island to a battle waged between two mortals--a tale heard from a Klamath Indian but revolving around members of the Shasta tribe of northern California and southern Oregon:

Wimawita ["Grizzly Bear," a Shasta brave] was the pride of his family and tribe. He could kill the grizzly bear and his prowess in the fight was renowned even among those fierce braves who controlled the entrance to the Lake of the Big Medicine, where the black obsidian arrow-heads are found. But the chase no longer had pleasure for him and he wandered far up the slopes of Shasta, where the elk and deer abound, and they passed slowly by him down into the heavy growth of murmuring pines, as if knowing that his mission was of peace. Above was the line of perpetual snow, where the tamarack was striving hard for existence in the barren rock. From this great height Wimawita gazed upon the lodges in the prairie amongst the huge trees far below and then, suddenly descending, disappeared into the forest, advancing towards the east, where springs the great gushing sawul [large spring], the sources of the Wini-mim [McCloud River].

There, in a little hut, dwelt old Winnishuya [Forethought]. "Tell me, O mother," he said, "what can I do to regain the love of Tculucul [The Lark]? she laughs at me and the dog Tsileu [Red Flicker] wanders with her over the snow-clad mountain." "'tis well," answered the old woman; Tculucul still loves you, but since your brave deeds among the Klamaths your thoughts are far away and you long for further perils to chant your great exploits in the councils of the brave. Tculucul has noticed your neglect and distaste for the exploits in which you formerly took pleasure. Why, 0 Wimawita, do you not seek for greater glory? Know you not of the great lake far away and deep down in the mountain-top? The way is long and difficult and but few reach its rocky slopes. If you have the strength and courage to climb down and bathe in its crystal waters, you will acquire great and marvelous wisdom, Tculucul will look upon you with favor, and none will equal you among your own people. The Llaos (children of the Great Spirit) guard the lake, and far in the past one of our own tribe reached it, but not propitiating the spirits, they killed him and his body was sunk into the depths of the blue water."

As she spoke the old woman's strength increased. Wimawita, listening, caught her energy and said: "'tis well, my mother;--tomorrow, while all sleep, will I start upon this journey far away over the fields of lava, to the river where the Klamaths dwell. Then will I find the way to the wondrous lake and bathe in the deep water." While speaking, he noted not the parting of the brush, where Tculucul was concealed and in her fright almost betrayed her presence. Nor was Tsileu visible behind the granite rocks near by, eagerly watching and hearing all that happened.

[Wimawita started off at at dawn the next day, followed closely by Tculucul, dressed as a brave, and further behind by Tsileu, gliding stealthily in the tracks of the others. The three marched for many long days "over the prairies of Shasta and the dreary lava fields of Modoc, until Wimawita reached the great river of the Klamaths." Here Tculucul revealed herself and proposed to accompany him to "the great lake in the top of the mountain." Tsileu, "inwardly raging, cast a look of hate upon them and sped northward through the land of the Klamaths."]

. . . At last, after many weary days, they reached the lake and made camp upon the edge of the precipice. All night Wimawita chanted his song and early, when the sun was just lighting up the circular wall on the opposite side of the lake, fully seven miles away, he clambered down the steep and rocky walls and plunged into the deep, clear water. His spirit seemed to soar from him; but it required all his strength to climb back to the rim of the crater. Again the next day he attempted the same difficult feat, and on returning said: "Once more only, Tculucul, will I have to bathe in the crystal water. Then wisdom and strength will be mine, our tribe will be the grandest in the land, and you the greatest squaw among us. Thus will your faith and help to me be rewarded."

On the third morning he started. Just as he reached the last descent, near the water's edge, he beheld Tsileu, "Dog of Wimawita, we will here find who is the greater man. Defend yourself!" he cried. They swayed to and fro on the edge of the cliff, advancing and retreating, where a false step would cause death. Tculucul from the cliff above, powerless to aid, beheld the mighty encounter. Suddenly Wimawita slipped on the mossy rock and Tsileu, exerting all his strength, raised and hurled him far out into the lake. Then the Llaos rose and bearing fiercely down upon Tsileu tore his body to pieces and cast them upon the water. Before the ripples had subsided where the lark disappeared, the waves parted and the lava burst out with a mighty noise. The Island of Llaos Nous [Wizard Island] rose up as a gasp of the dying crater, and here, 'tis said, dwells the spirit of Wimawita, the brave, and Tculucul, the lark." [18]

Another legend not only explains the creation of Wizard Island but also suggests the manner in which the Crater Lake caldera became filled with water. Some new romantic elements have been added:

Llao, the master of everything living under the earth and water, dwelt in the fiery pit where Crater Lake now lies, and this was the only place he could come to the surface of the earth. Skell was master of all the animals that lived on the earth. Both were in love with the daughter of the chief of the Klamath Indians and both asked for her hand in marriage and were refused because her father was rearing her to be chief of the tribe when he died. Llao felt wronged when he was refused her hand and returned to his home on Llao Rock and brooded. Skell understood and pledged his help to the Indians if they needed it.

Then Llao commanded the chief to deliver his daughter to him in three days, or seven days of death and destruction would be launched against the Indians. The girl wanted to sacrifice herself for her people, but they wouldn't let her. They tied her in her tent and lay face downward awaiting destruction. Skell started to help the Indians, but Llao, seeing him go, hurled a flaming boulder across the skies and struck him dead. Then Llao's children took Skell's heart from his body and brought it to their father.

All of Skell's children gathered at a fountain where he drank and bewailed his fate. Llao sent a messenger to them proclaiming himself lord of everything above earth as well as underneath it.

After he left, the coyote said, "Since it is proclaimed that Skell's heart will live and his body live if his heart be returned, let us proceed to the home of Llao and declare ourselves his loyal subjects, awaiting the chance to restore the heart to our master."

Taunts greeted them as they arrived, and the weasel, brother of Llao, ran to the ballground with Skell's heart and began to toss it into the air. The coyote followed him to the ballground and began to chide him for not being able to throw it far. Other animals tried to toss it too but the coyote chided them all for not being able to throw it high into the air. Finally, Llao became angry at his taunts and stalked out and hurled it far into the air. It soared and soared and finally came to the ground on the far end of the baseball ground. The fox, who was hidden near, snatched it and rushed into the forest. As Llao's children were about to catch the fox, the antelope burst through the throng and took the heart and rushed on with it. The eagle swooped down and, taking the heart from the antelope, flew out of sight with it. A voice of a dove, sounding from a great distance, told them Skell lived again.

Brooding over this, Llao went to Skell's land and challenged him to a wrestling match. Skell knew that Llao was stronger, but decided to wrestle rather than appear cowardly before his children and the other gods. Llao threw him across his shoulder and started toward his home. When they were only a short distance from Llao's home, Skell said that a louse was biting him and he wanted to scratch. Llao taunted him saying, "What matter a little bite when I am soon going to cut you into pieces and feed you to my children?"

"But you will grant me this one last wish," pleaded Skell. Llao freed one of his hands and Skell pulled out his knife and cut off Llao's head. Then he sent word to Llao's children that Skell had been killed. They gathered around the pit beneath Lao's throne and ate the pieces of their master as they were thrown down to them. But when their master's head was tossed over, they were grieved and would not touch it. It remains today where it was thrown and is known as Wizard Island. Then the pit grew dark and the children wept, their tears falling into the dark pit which is today known as Crater Lake. [19]

Another explanation for the formation of the cavity, its flooding by water, and its inhabitation by demons involves internecine warfare among members of the Klamath tribe:

Long before the white man s coming, there was rebellion among the Klamath Indians. For days the battle raged fiercely until finally the weaker side took refuge on the highest mountain for miles around. Firmly entrenched among the rocks, they were able to withstand the assaults of the entire tribe. One attack after another was made, each ending in a repulse. Finally a council of war was held by the besieging party, and the medicine men were told to invoke the aid of the Great Spirit. For two days a